Salve citizens of Waterloo. I, Gaius Lucius Agrippa, welcome you once more to the Forum Romanum in our glorious city of Rome! On this day of Martius, in honour of our common Roman ancestral god Mars, we bring you another article of Acta Diurna. We mark this issue with the story of the legend who forever changed the face of the Roman Republic and lit the beacon bearing the guiding flames of the Roman Empire. The tale of the man who ventured and conquered the heart of Gaul, introduced countless societal and governmental reforms, and was famously assassinated on the Ides of March in 44 BC. We celebrate the life and story of Gaius Julius Caesar.
Early Years
Gaius Julius Caesar was born c. July 12th or 13th in 100 BC into a patrician (ruling class) family, the Julii Caesares, a subdivision of the ancient Julii or Julia family in the Roman Republic. The Julii claim descent from Lulus, also known as Ascanius, a legendary King of Alba Longa and son of the legendary Trojan Prince Aeneas. The Julii have shared a long history of political power and achievements throughout Rome’s history, but during the time of Gaius Julius Caesar’s birth, their political might and fortunes were insignificant. Caesar’s father, who he shares his name with, was the governor of the province of Asia at that time, and the young Caesar’s aunt was married to a prominent figure in the republic, Gaius Marius.
In 85 BC, at the age of 16, Gaius Julius Caesar was ushered into adulthood with the death of his father, and assumed the role as head of the family. Caesar’s early years of adolescence were plagued with instability and strife, beginning with the tumultuous civil war between his uncle, Gaius Marius, and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. During Marius’ initial victory, Caesar enjoyed great political honour as the appointed high priest of Jupiter, and was married to Cornelia, the daughter of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, an ally of Marius and powerful political figure at the time. Things quickly changed, however, as Sulla won control of the city during the final stages of the civil war, and ultimately claimed victory. The very connections that gave Caesar his wings to ascend the Roman hierarchy made him the target of the new regime under Sulla. Caesar lost most of his property, was stripped of his inheritance, his wife’s dowry and his priesthood, and was threatened into divorcing Cornelia. Caesar steadfastly refused and was forced to go into hiding, fleeing from Rome. At the behest of his mother’s family and the Vestal Virgins, Sulla let Caesar go, albeit reluctantly.
Fearing for his safety in Rome, Caesar joined the Roman army, serving under praetor Marcus Minucius Thermus in the Roman province of Asia and under Servilius Isauricus in the province of Cilicia. During his time in service, he became a distinguished soldier and commander, earning the Civic Crown for his role in the Siege of Mytilene.
It was not until Sulla’s death in 78 BC that Caesar would return to Rome and make an appearance in the political scene. His return to Rome saw him pursue legal advocacy, where he gained renown for his passionate orations and merciless persecution and denouncement of corrupt former governors. In this time, he also traveled to Rhodes, where he endeavored to study philosophy under the same Greek masters that instructed the famous orator, Cicero. A famous tale from this time involved his capture by pirates on one of his trips between Rome and Rhodes. At the time of Caesar’s capture, he was said to have put on a bold display of his skills in negotiation and counter-insurgency tactics, going so far as to befriend his pirate captors, drinking and gambling with them, and even convincing the pirates to raise his ransom. Caesar jovially promised to return upon release and have the pirates crucified. Shortly after his ransom was paid and his subsequent release, Caesar raised a fleet and chased the pirates across the Aegean Sea, eventually capturing them and arranging for their crucifixion. The event served to bolster Caesar’s reputation back in Rome. Caesar proved himself once again during a military campaign in 74 BC when he was called back to service in Asia. Caesar raised a private army of auxiliaries and fought against Mithradates VI Eupator, King of Pontus, who had declared war on Rome.
Upon his return to Rome, he quickly progressed through the ranks, rising in his political career. He was first elected as Military Tribune, and eventually held the office of Quaestor by 69 BC. It was during this time that Caesar moved to Spain to serve his Quaestorship. Caesar’s time in Spain is heavily romanticized as a turning point in his career. As the story goes, he came across a statue of Alexander the Great. It was by the pedestal of the statue that it dawned on Caesar how unsatisfied he was with his current position; Alexander the Great had conquered most of the known world by his age.
As the years went on, Caesar became a significant player in Roman politics, first running for Pontifex Maximus, the position of high priest of the college of pontiffs, in 63 BC. He easily won the election against two other powerful senators. In 62 BC he served as praetor, and was eventually appointed as governor of the province of Hispania Ulterior as proprietor. In this time he made strong allies such as Marcus Licinius Crassus, and was also hailed as Imperator by his soldiers after conquering two tribes in Hispania, and made major reforms regarding debt to the province.
By 60 BC, Caesar won the election for consulship, along with Marcus Bibulus. Seeking more control of Rome’s operations, Caesar attempted to take advantage of an opportunity. Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gaius Pompeius Magnus (better known in English as Pompey the Great) had been political and business enemies for the better part of the last decade, and both were held in high esteem in Rome. Caesar succeeded in bringing the two to terms. This three-way political alliance famously became known as the First Triumvirate. During his time as consul, Caesar was able to gain more power with the help of Pompei and Crassus, and introduced laws such as the redistribution of public lands to the poor which greatly increased his popularity with the plebeians and lower class, as well as benefitted himself for he was deeply in debt. By the end of his consulship he was also able to win the appointment of governor for three of Rome’s provinces: Cisalpine Gaul, Illyricum and Transalpine Gaul.
Military Conquest
In securing governorship of Cisalpine Gaul, Transalpine Gaul, and Illyricum, Caesar gained the means to build a large military force; his role as governor of the provinces allowed him command of four legions. Still in debt, Caesar knew that there was money to be made and fame to be earned in military conquest. The Romans at the time feared the inhabitants and tribes of Gaul, many of whom were migrating south into Roman provinces and territories. The sparks of conflict started when Caesar raised two legions and fought against rival Gallic tribes who initially defeated Roman allies in the Battle of Magetobriga. In response to Caesar’s military presence and the increased Roman military activities, more Gallic tribes started to arm themselves. Caesar earned countless military victories in the years of 56 – 55 BC, subduing various Gallic tribes as far north as Britain. In 52 BC Vercingetorix, an Averni chieftain, attempted to break Caesar’s control of Gaul by uniting the various Gallic tribes in a revolt against the Roman forces. Vercingetorix initially won a number of engagements against Caesar, most notably being the Battle of Gergovia in which 46 centurions, 700 legionaries, and more than 6000 people were injured. The unstable alliances and unity of Gallic tribes came too late, however, as Vercingetorix was ultimately defeated and captured during a heated siege at Alesia which is considered one of Caesar’s greatest military achievements. This marked a turning point in the history of Gaul, as it fell deeper into Roman hands. Under the lead of Caesar, over 300 tribes were subjugated and a very rough estimated 800 cities were destroyed.
A Divided Rome
Caesar’s military conquests in Gaul earned him fame and fortune, making him incredibly popular and powerful both politically and financially. His former allies, however, did not celebrate his continued rise in power. Just the year before Caesar’s victory against Vercingetorix, his former ally Crassus was killed during a failed invasion of Roman provinces in the east. Meanwhile back in Rome, Caesar’s daughter, who was married to Pompey, died in childbirth. Caesar would later attempt to offer his great-niece’s hand in marriage to Pompey, to once again secure their alliance. Pompey would decline the offer, having grown more wary and envious of Caesar, choosing instead to marry the daughter of one of Caesar’s enemies, Metellus Scipio. The First Triumvirate had fallen apart.
By 50 BC the Senate, which had grown to dislike and fear Caesar’s growing power, ordered him to disband his armies and return to Rome as his term as governor was ending. Fearing prosecution if he were to return to Rome, Caesar stalled for time and refused to disband his army. Wary of Caesar’s intentions and fearing an attempt to take control of the Republic, the Senate turned to Pompey for support. Together they accused Caesar of insubordination and treason, declaring him an enemy of the state. In January of 49 BC, Caesar with the company of the 13th legion, marched towards Rome. According to the historian Plutarch, Caesar famously stated as he crossed the Rubicon River, “alea iacta esto” or “let the die be cast”. Pompey and the Senate fled south to neighboring cities to raise an army. This marked the beginning of yet another civil war that would tear Rome apart. Pompey and Caesar clashed on several fronts fighting battles all across the Mediterranean. Pompey would ultimately suffer a final defeat at the Battle of Pharsalus in Greece, and flee to Egypt.
At the end of the civil war, what remained of the senate would, under Caesar’s influence, appoint him as dictator, with his most trusted lieutenant Marc Antony as his Master of the Horse. Caesar then oversaw his own election to another term as consul, after which he absolved his role as dictator. Not long after, Caesar left for Egypt in pursuit of Pompey, arriving shortly after Pompey’s assassination, where he was presented with his former-rival’s head. Famously, Caesar is said to have been driven to tears by the act, and demanded the deaths of those responsible for the act. This would mark the end of the Ceasar-Pompey civil war, and the beginning of Caesar’s unopposed rule of Rome.
The Dictator
During Caesar’s time in Egypt, he found himself involved in yet another civil war, this time between the child-Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII and his sister (and as with Royal Egyptian custom of the time, his wife) Cleopatra VII Philopator. Ceasar sided with Cleopatra, who had the people of Alexandria’s support, and withstood the Siege of Alexandria. She later defeated Ptolemy XIII in the Battle of the Nile in 47 BC. This time would also be the beginning of the heated affair between Caesar and Cleopatra.
In the years of 47 – 46 BC, Caesar fought across the Mediterranean, ultimately defeating the King of Pontus in the Middle East, and crushing remnants of the opposing senators and Pompey’s followers in North Africa. Shortly after defeat, one of Caesar’s greatest senatorial opponents, Cato, committed suicide.
Upon Caesar’s return to Rome, the Senate celebrated his victories over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces and Juba, during one of which Caesar famously parades Vercingetorix around Rome. Extravagant games were held, from hunts, gladiatorial contests, and even a naval battle held on a flooded basin at the Field of Mars. A celebration which foreshadowed the future extravagance and festivities that Rome’s future Emperors will indulge in.
After Caesar’s triumph, he would put forth his extensive and very ambitious reforms to the Roman Republic. He changed a multitude of laws and introduced even more. It was during this time that Caesar built the famous Forum of Caesar and the Temple of Venus Genetrix within a massive theatre, and a new colossal temple to Mars among many other public works. He restructured the Roman Republic, introducing new offices to government and abolishing many elitist political guilds. He also reformed the Roman calendar to what is now known as the Julian calendar, which includes three extra months in order to align the calendar with the seasons. Caesar also strengthened Rome’s central government, chipping away at governors’ provincial powers that for too long in Rome’s history has been used to gain political power and generate intrigue. During this time, Caesar also continued to build his political power and control, first giving himself the title of “Prefect of The Morals”, which empowered him to fill the senate with his own followers. He also started the formality which would be followed by his successor and eventually future Roman emperors, in which they were granted various honorary titles such as “Imperator” and “Father of the Fatherland”. A mere month before his assassination, Julius Gaius Caesar was appointed as dictator perpetuo, or dictator for life.
On the 15th of March, also known as the Idus Martii or Ides of March in the Roman calendar, Gaius Julius Caesar was to appear at a session of the Senate. Upon entering the senate chamber, Caesar was confronted and stabbed twenty times. As described by Plutarch, Caesar was approached by Tillius Climber who proposed a petition to recall his exiled brother, during which a crowd of other conspirators gathered around him. As Caesar waved him away, Climber grabbed Caesar and pulled his tunic down, at which point Servilius Casca, another conspirator, took out a knife and made an attempt at Caesar’s neck. More of the conspirators joined in, infamously including Marcus Junius Brutus. Caesar was said to have helplessly tripped and fallen on the steps of the portico, and was relentlessly stabbed by approximately 60 conspirators.
A life size wax statue of Caesar would later be erected in the Roman Forum, depicting the twenty-three stab wounds, and would be the gathering place of a riot of plebeians who supported Caesar. This marked the beginning of yet another series of civil wars that would culminate in the formation of the Roman Empire.
The Legacy
In later years, after the ascent of Caesar’s heir and adopted son/great nephew Octavian, later known as Augustus Caesar, Caesar became the first citizen of Rome to be recognized as divine. The site of his cremation would later host the Temple of Caesar, also known as Temple of the Comet, which was dedicated to the cult worship of the deified Julius Caesar. Caesar’s bloodline also included a number of future Roman Emperors who would continue to shape Rome and its reaches. The man Gaius Julius Caesar would make it through the sands of time, truly as a legendary being, immortalized in the tales of his achievements, the stories of his victories, and the romanticized tragedy of his assassination; he who changed Rome forever.
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