Salve citizens of Waterloo, I Gaius Lucius Agrippa welcome you all once again to the steps of the Forum Romanum! Once more on this day of Mercurius, I bring to you another befitting article for the Acta Diurna. Given that we have successfully reached the final article of the Acta Diurna for this term, I present to you today a topic that is very much related in nature but very different in origin to our debut article on the Founding of Rome. In this article, I can only hope to present to you but a taste of the splendour of our glorious nation, once more for this term, I welcome you all!
In our last meeting, I brought forth a topic from the realm of the endless: the flowing waters of time! On this fair day, I speak to you of something much more tangible, and much easier to observe with the senses. Here on the mortal plane, we know of the Celtic Kingdoms, the Greek Poleis, Achaemenid Satrapies, and of course the countless tribal borders dotting the known world. The people of Rome saw the expanses of these great cities and kingdoms, and more often than not these same kingdoms would clash against Rome throughout its long history. Acting for the good of the Senate and People of Rome, brave generals and their legions would march on these nations. Through the course of time these lands would fall under the control of the Roman Republic and eventually become a part of the Roman Empire. So today we speak of the rise of the Roman Kingdom and Roman Republic. We follow the small kingdom and its growth, from the province of Latium to the known world! As the old saying goes: Venimus, vidimus, vicimus.
This topic of course would be difficult to explain without first giving some insight on the significance of the conquests that we will mention, and a brief history on their role and how they came to be part of the grand history of Rome. The conflicts and battles that we chose to showcase in this article were selected due to the significance of their role in the shaping of the Roman Republic. During the course of these conflicts and wars, many thousands of battles and skirmishes may have been performed, but to list all would both be tedious and difficult to follow. As such, we mention only the major battles that have made an important impact to each of the wars. We also divide the timeline into three very broad periods of expansion: the first being Rome’s establishment of power in the Italian peninsula in the Early Republic; following that is Rome’s expansion of control in the Mediterranean, and finally Rome’s conquests into Gaul (modern day France and Germany).
The Italian Peninsula
Since the founding of Rome, its history has been one of blood, duty, and power. If you may recall in the first Acta Diurna article on the Founding of Rome, we mentioned Romulus, the First King of Rome, and the establishment of the eternal city on the banks of the Tiber River after the death of his brother. As the Kingdom grew, Rome’s first clashes were with its neighbouring towns and villages in the region of Latium. In the legendary account of Rome’s early history, a major rival of Rome were the Sabines, an Italic tribe who inhabited the area of Latium north of the Anio River. It is said that during the course of its history the original Sabine tribe were divided in two, with one half joining the new city of Rome, and the other half eventually fighting for their independence against the rapidly growing city. During the reign of Rome’s Kings, from the 8th to 6th Centuries BC, Rome’s conflicts expanded through most of Latium reaching as far north as modern day Tuscany, against other Latin tribes, and the Etruscan civilization.
Around 509 BC Rome transitioned from being a Kingdom to a Republic, and its conflicts extended north and west. Initially the conflicts were the result of harassment from the Etruscans to the North, and the Umbrians to the East. Rome had no choice but to defend their relatively small borders from the older and well established kingdoms. In the 4th Century BC, Rome came to clashes with Gallic tribes from further north which resulted in the dramatic defeat of the Roman army at the Battle of Allia. This battle would be the first of many in what would be a long-spanning conflict between the Gauls and the Romans. It is not until 200 years later that this conflict would be resolved in a Roman victory with the defeat of Vercingetorix at the hands of Julius Caesar in the Battle of Alesia.
Following the loss against the Gauls and the subsequent partial sack of Rome, the Romans wasted no time in recovering to resume their expansion within Italy. The next 70 years would see Rome once again on the battlefront against the Samnites to the south. The first (343 BC – 341 BC) and second (327 BC – 304 BC) Samnite wars eventually led to the annexation of Samnite territory and the establishment of Roman colonies. A third Samnite War broke out (298 BC – 282 BC), which ultimately led to Rome facing not only Samnites forces, but also Etruscans, Gauls, and Umbrians. By 282 BC Rome had established itself as a major military power in Italy, and had most of the Italian Peninsula in its field of control.
In 280 BC, Greek colonies of Magna Graecia (region around the southern coast of Italy) who were allied with the Samnites were drawn into the fray due to the continued expansion of Rome. This led the Greek city state of Tarentum to seek help from the larger Greek nation of Epirus from across the Ionian Sea. Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, answered their plea and brought over a Greek army and a contingent of war elephants over to Italy, embroiling Rome into what would be known as the Pyrrhic War. The war lasted approximately 5 years, initially being unfavourable for Rome, but eventually resulting in heavy losses and the depletion of Pyrrhus’ army. In 275 BC, Pyrrhus retreated back to Epirus, and Rome’s dominance on the Italian peninsula was solidified.
Dominance in the Mediterranean
Rome’s expansion across the Mediterranean and rise in naval power occurred through a series of devastating wars which saw heavy losses for Rome and its rivals. The period, which would last over a hundred years, would see Rome emerge as the dominant power in the Mediterranean region, controlling territory as far West as Iberia (Modern day Spain and Portugal) and as far east as the fringes of the Persian Seleucid Kingdom.
Rome’s introduction as a major contender in the Mediterranean occurred in 264 BC, the dawn of the first Punic War. The First Punic began when City of Messana (Modern day Messina, in Sicily) requested aid from Rome and Carthage against Hiero II of Syracuse. Carthage, being the strongest force in the Western Mediterranean at the time, responded first to Messana, forcing Hiero II to take no further action against Messana. In return for their assistance, Carthage stationed a garrison of troops in Messana. The Mamertines who controlled Messana, unhappy with the result of the Carthagian intervention, petitioned for an alliance with Rome and appealed to them to expel the Carthaginian garrison. Rome, fearing the growth of Carthage’s control in Sicily, and the prospect of Carthaginian influence spreading in Italy, responded with arms. The war began with the arrival of Roman troops led by Appius Claudius Caudex in Messana. The Roman army defeated the Carthaginian garrison and their Syracusan support at Messana and marched on to Syracuse itself. Receiving no support from Carthage, Syracuse eventually sued for peace with Rome, paying tribute and taking its place as an ally.
Aside from the early battles in Sicily, the rest of the war would become a naval affair off the coast of Sicily and Africa. Carthage, being a well-established naval power, had the upper hand against Rome’s non-existent navy. Rome’s initial naval attempts against Carthage in the Battle of the Lipari Islands resulted in devastating losses. It was only after the invention of the Corvus, a Roman boarding mechanism which allowed the Roman marines to board enemy vessels and fight on deck, that Rome would gain the upper hand against Carthage. The victory of Rome in the Battle of Mylae, thanks to the new Corvus mechanism, would mark the beginning a series of naval victories that would put Rome in control of the sea against Carthage. After a war lasting twenty years, Rome would defeat Carthage and impose harsh terms in a peace treaty that would ultimately feed the cause for the Second Punic War.
In the years that followed, relations between Rome and Carthage were tense at best. It was not long before a Second Punic War would break out, featuring some of the greatest generals the Mediterranean has seen. The war began with Hannibal Barca (son of Hamilcar Barca, one of the leading commanders of Carthage during the First Punic War) attacking the city of Saguntum (modern day Sagunto in Eastern Spain) which had close ties with Rome. Hannibal then raised an army in Iberia, which is estimated to be composed of over 102 000 troops and a contingent of 37 war elephants. He would famously march his army north through Iberia and Gaul, crossing the Alps with his army and war elephants, arriving in northern Italy by the spring of 218 BC. Rome, in retaliation, mustered an expedition to Iberia, and crossed the Mediterranean.
Hannibal, for the following years of the war, took control of most of the Italian country side, defeating the Romans again and again at the Battles of Nola, the First Battle of Capua, Silarius, Hedonia, Numistro, and the Battle of Asculum. In 216 BC, shortly after the defeat of Rome in the Battle of Cannae, Philip V of Macedon allied himself with Hannibal with the intention of expanding his power and control west towards the Italian coast. The alliance was shortly discovered and caused alarm on an already stretched and struggling Rome. By 214 BC, Philip V of Macedon, invaded and besieged Apollonia, a coastal city on the Adriatic fiercely loyal to Rome. The war with Macedon ultimately ended, with Rome successfully keeping Philip V pre-occupied from aiding Hannibal with an expeditionary force to Greece.
In 210 BC Rome’s fortunes turned after a Second Expedition to Iberia lead by general Scipio Africanus culminated in the successful capture of Cartagena, the center of Carthage’s power in Iberia. Hannibal’s Brother Hasdrubal Barca, seeking to join his brother in Italy, passed through Iberia and clashed with Scipio’s expedition. By 206 BC, Scipio Africanus defeated the armies of Mago Barca, Hasdrubal Gisgo, and Masinissa, ultimately destroying Carthagian control in Iberia. This would hinder Carthage greatly in the war, no longer being able to support troops on the Iberian coast.
Rome however, was still unable to defeat Hannibal in Italy, facing various stalemates and losses attempting to reclaim cities across Latium. In a desperate attempt to threaten the city of Carthage itself, Rome assembled an expeditionary force to Africa. Scipio Africanus, well known now for his victories in Iberia, was given command to lead the African expedition and landed near Utica in 204 BC. Shortly after landing, Scipio would destroy the combined Carthaginian and Numidian army waiting for them.
After this a brief armistice occurred, and negotiations were opened between Rome and Carthage shortly after Scipio’s defeat of the Numidians. Hannibal was recalled from Rome, and met personally with Scipio Africanus in Carthage. Rome however, distrusting of Carthage due to their breach of earlier agreements after the First Punic War, was reluctant to accept a peace treaty. It was not long before negotiations were suspended and hostilities resumed. Scipio defeated Hannibal in the famous Battle of Zama, ending the Second Punic War.
Rome’s dominance in the Mediterranean would further be solidified with a series of wars against the Macedon and the Greeks. In 200 BC Macedon began to claim territory belonging to mostly independent Greek city states. The city states, most of whom forged alliances with Rome during the Punic wars, turned once again to Rome for help against Macedon. Rome, eyeing Macedon and its possessions, gave Philip V an ultimatum: for Macedon t0 submit and become a Province of Rome or to face further conflict. Philip refused, and Rome declared war on Macedon once again, beginning the Second Macedonian War. Under the leadership of Titus Quinctius Flaminius, the Macedonians lost during the subsequent major Battles of Aous in 200BC and Cynoscephalae in 197BC. Ultimately, Macedon lost to Rome, being forced to sign the Treaty of Tempea, where it lost its claim to territory in Greece and Asia and was forced to pay a war indemnity to Rome.
During the resulting power vacuum in Greece after the defeat of Philip V and Macedon, the Greek city state of Sparta gained power. Sparta, hoping to fill the void in Greece and seeing the potential for expansion in the Peloponnese, started to assert dominance, enforcing their rule in Argos which they had gained during the Second Macedonian War. Rome, unwilling to allow Sparta to grow further in influence and power in Greece, stepped in with the aid of the Achaean League, Pergamum, and Rhodes beginning the Laconian War.
Rome would eventually return to conflict with Macedon after the death of Philip V and the rise of his son Perseus of Macedon. Perseus’ actions not only boldly challenged the alliance between Rome and Macedon, but also violated the treaty signed by his father many years before. It was not long before Rome declared war on Macedon, thus beginning the Third Macedonian War. Initially the war went in favour of Perseus and he claimed victory at the Battle of Callicinus against a Roman consular army. However, under the command of Lucius Aemillius Paullus, Perseus was ultimately defeated in the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC. The end of the war brought about the split of Macedonia into four Roman client republics. Various lands formerly under Macedonian rule were annexed by Rome, and were distributed to various Roman veterans, and hundreds of thousands of Macedonians were enslaved. This would mark the end of the Macedonian Kingdom, and the rise of Rome over the former powers of Ancient Greece.
The next 50 years would see Rome fight wars against their former allies and continuous bloodshed between Romans, Greeks, and Illyrians. The Aetolian, Illyrian, and Achaean Wars would see Rome all across Greece and the Lower Balkans. The series of wars gave Rome more land for expansion and control over regions far from the Italian peninsula, and ultimately dominance in the Mediterranean.
The Gallic Wars and the Heart of Gaul
By the late Republic, the expanse of the Republic of Rome reached far west across the Iberian Peninsula, the surrounding cities of the Aegean Sea to the East, and as far south as the former lands of Carthage. Rome would now turn its gaze north into the dark forests of Germania, and the rich wilds of Gaul. The man at the forefront of this conquest would be no other than Gaius Julius Caesar.
58 BC marked the beginning of the Gallic wars. The first of the tribes to cross swords with Caesar and his legions were the Helvetii, a confederation of Gallic tribes from the Swiss Plateau who were migrating southward after increased pressured and hostilities from the German tribes north and east. Their mass migration would have taken them near the lands of the Aedui, who at the time were a Roman ally. At the Battle of Arar, the Helvetian clan of the Tigurine were defeated by surprise attack by Caesar’s legions as the Helvetii were crossing the river Arar. Due to a delay of supplies to the legions, Caesar halted their initial pursuit of the Helvetii and retreated to the Aedui town of Bibracte. It was here that the Helvetii turned and faced the legions, accumulating in what Caesar described as a battle was “long, and carried on with doubtful success. The legions eventually triumphed, and the Helvetii surrendered to Caesar.
Shortly after Caesar’s victory over the Helvetii, Diviciacus, head of the Aeduan government and spokesperson for the Gallic delegation, requested Caesar’s aid against the conquests of Ariovistus of the Suebi tribe and king of a Germanic Confederation. Initially, due to Ariovistus being declared by the senate as a friend of the Roman people, Caesar could not declare war against him and the Suebi. However, shortly after the rejection and violation of an ultimatum that Caesar presented to him, the two become embroiled in conflict. The conflict would end in a major battle nearby the Sequani town of Vesontio, where Caesar would kill most of Ariovistus’ army of 120 000. Ariovistus and his remaining troops retreated back across the Rhine, never to cross swords with Rome ever again.
In 57BC, Caesar would be involved once again in a Gallic conflict against the Belgae (inhabitants of the area around modern day Belgium). The Belgae would cross swords with Caesar after he learned of their attack on a tribe allied with Rome. In the initial battles Caesar and his forces lost dramatically due the Nervii (a major tribe of the Belgae) with their quick assembly and ferocity. Ultimately however, the Nervii would lose to the Romans due to Caesar’s use of projectile weapons and Roman engines such as the Scorpion against the Nervii’s tight-packed battle formations. The Nervii would lose many of their towns and settlements, and many of their allied Belgic tribes would surrender soon after.
Caesar’s subjugation and control in Gaul would eventually culminate in an uprising in 54BC. The uprising however was only the beginning to a much larger campaign led by the chief of the Averni tribe of central Gaul, Vercingetorix. The campaign against Vercingetorix would last a few years, with Rome pursuing Vercingetorix throughout Gaul. The Gallic Wars would ultimately come to an end in Vercingetorix’s defeat at the Battle of Alessia where Caesar successfully besieged him and thwarted various Gallic relief forces. The end of the Gallic wars would establish Rome as masters of Gaul and the lands south of the Rhine, further expanding their reaches north.
After 50BC, Rome’s power would not face any major challenges, and their dominance throughout the known world would echo throughout the ages. Even time itself would remember the reaches of the Roman Republic, its sign of strength, and its marks of conquest visible from every corner.
Remember citizen, Vae Victis et Roma Invicta!
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